修行会

解説

この第142首「武産は／御親の火水に／合気して／その営は／岐美の神業」は、武産（たけむす）＝「生み続ける武」の根を、御親（みおや）の火水（＝いき／息）に合わせるところに据えています。ここで火水→いきという当て字は、火（発動・上昇）×水（鎮静・沈降）＝呼吸の拮抗を一呼吸に束ねる設計で、合気してはその火水の拍に自らを同調させるという実作法。結句の岐美（きみ）はイザナギ・イザナミの「二にして一」の創造神を指し、その営（いとなみ）＝世界生成の働きが、武産の正体なのだと畳み込みます。すなわち、息（いき）の合一が、そのまま創造＝むすびを起動する、という短詩です。

植芝盛平の六つのプライマーを通すと配置はこう締まる。プライマーの第一原理〈武＝宇宙原理〉—武産＝宇宙的むすびを御親の息に合わせて起動する。プライマーの第二原理〈人との合気〉—岐美＝対立する二相の結婚として、相対の力（火／水、攻／受）を結んで生かす。プライマーの第三原理〈心魂一如〉—声・息・身を同拍に束ね、火水の転調を身体で運転する芯。プライマーの第四原理〈和合美化〉—「神業」としての技は壊すのでなく生む方向へ場を導く美学。プライマーの第五原理〈体＝道場、心＝修業者／修行者心／学び手〉—呼吸（いき）稽古・禊（みそぎ）・間合いを通じ、火水を一息に調える日々の反復。プライマーの第六原理〈「至愛」の源に順う〉—御親に連なる親愛のテロスを技の行き先に据える。こう読むと、本首は呼吸＝火水を合気＝むすびに直結させる「運転図」の提示です。

直前三首との糸も一筋でつながる。第139首は澄み切りし御心は隙とてもなしと無隙の作法を定め、第140首はゆずって導きつつも害は通さじという現場の護りを誓い、第141首は「諸人の光」として世を開かんと外向きの志向を宣言しました。そこへ 第142首は、その無隙の心（第139首）と護りの歩（第140首）と光の志（第141首）を「御親のいき」の拍に載せ直し、岐美＝二相の合一として技を生み続ける（武産）段へと踏み込ませます。要するに――心を澄まし（第139首）／ゆずって守り（第140首）／光で開き（第141首）／息の火水で生む（第142首）。この循環が、このページの稽古指針です。

口語要約のひとこと

「武産は、御親の火と水の息に合気して、その働きは岐美（イザナギ・イザナミ）の神わざなんだ。」

詩法の襞――定型・縁語・体言止め

本首は、まず五・七・五・七・七の定型がきわめて素直に立っています。「武産は」五音、「御親の火水に」七音、「合気して」五音、「その営は」七音、「岐美の神業」七音。語の区切りと句の区切りがほぼそのまま重なり、読誦の息が乱れない。上の句は「武産は／御親の火水に／合気して」と、武産の発生条件を置き、下の句は「その営は／岐美の神業」と、その働きの正体を明かす。つまり、上の句は“どこに合うか”、下の句は“何として顕れるか”を受け持つ構造です。第三句「合気して」は、上から下へ渡る蝶番であり、火水の息を神業の営みへ転じる転調点となります。

助詞の運びも、短いながら強い骨格を作っています。初句の「は」は武産を大きく掲げ、第四句の「その営は」はそれを受け直す。ここには厳密な意味での係結びはありませんが、二つの「は」が呼応して、第一句の主題を第四句で再び照らす働きをしています。また「御親の」と「岐美の」という二つの「の」は、上の句では根源を、下の句では帰属を示す。武産は御親の火水に発し、その営みは岐美に属する――この二つの所有・由来の線が、歌全体を神話的な系譜として結んでいます。

結句「岐美の神業」は、明らかに体言止めとして働いています。最後に「なり」「である」と言い切らず、名詞句のまま置くことで、説明を閉じず、神名と神業の響きを残す。しかも「業」は、単なる“仕事”であると同時に、武道における“技”の響きも帯びるため、「神業」は“神の働き”でありながら、“神の技”でもある。ここで歌は、教義の命題として終わるのではなく、稽古者の身体に余韻を残して終わります。これが本首の余韻です。

縁語の網も濃い。第一の縁語群は、火水・気・合気・息です。火水を「いき」と読むことで、第二句の「いき」が第三句の「あいき」の中へ吸い込まれる。音としては、いきから合気へ、すなわち息が合わさって合気になる運びです。第二の縁語群は、御親・産・営・岐美です。親があり、産みがあり、営みがあり、岐美二神の生成がある。武産の「産」は、単なる技の発生ではなく、神代の国生み・神生みの語群へ連なっていく。第三の縁語群は、武・業・神業です。武の働きが、破壊の業ではなく、神の生成の業へ見立てられている。

掛詞としては、既に火水＝いきが中心ですが、結句の「岐美」にも耳の余白があります。文字はイザナギ・イザナミの岐美に固定されている一方、音としては古語の「君」も遠く響く。君は主君・尊貴な相手・愛しき相手を呼ぶ語でもあるため、結句は神話的な創造神を指しながら、同時に“尊き二者”“親しき二者”の気配を残す。これは強い掛詞とまでは言わずとも、表記で意味を定め、音で余情を広げる、道歌らしい耳の仕掛けです。

見立ても本首の要です。稽古場で起こる合気の働きを、岐美二神の神業として見る。人の技を、神代の生成へ見立てることで、武産は単なる武術用語ではなく、天地生成の小さな再演になります。攻めと受け、火と水、陽と陰、発動と鎮静――これらの二相が争って終わるのでなく、一息に結ばれて新たな技を生む。その瞬間、稽古の場そのものが、神話的な産霊の場へ移されるのです。

なお、正格の歌枕や枕詞はここでは前面に出ません。地名による歌枕ではなく、岐美という神名そのものが神話的な場所を開く。また、固定した枕詞ではなく、「御親の火水に」が、合気へ至る小さな序詞のように働いています。これは装飾的な前置きではなく、音と意味を準備する導入句です。御親の火水――いき――合気。この連なりを口に載せることで、読者の息はすでに歌の教える運転へ入っている。ゆえに本首は、定型・助詞・縁語・体言止めを通じて、武産を“説明”するだけでなく、声に出した瞬間に火水の合気を始動させる短詩となっています。

発話行為理論

オースティン（Austin, 1962）の三分法から見ると、第142首の発話行為論（Speech Act Theory）で本首を読むと、発話行為（locutionary）は「武産は／御親の火水に／合気して／その営は／岐美の神業」と声に載る五句の語構成そのもの、発話内行為は「武産」を御親の火水＝いきに合気する営として定義し、さらに岐美の神業へ位相転換する宣言、発話媒介行為は読誦・稽古・呼吸の場に、技を作為の操作でなく火水のむすびとして感受させる作用です。第一句・第二句の「武産は／御親の火水に」は、第四句「その営は」に折り返され、上の句で置かれた主題が下の句で働きとして再命名されます。第三句「合気して」は切れであり橋であり、結句「岐美の神業」へ掛かる要。火水＝いきの掛詞は、火と水、息と生気、発動と鎮静を一音へ畳み、発話の音そのものを合気の作法へ変えています。

この襞を押さえると、上の句／下の句の境は単なる三句切れではなく、発話内行為（illocutionary）の転調点となる。前半は「何から生まれるか」を示し、後半は「何として働くか」を明かす。武産は御親のいきに発し、その営は岐美のかむわざとして顕れる――この二段の言い換えが、説明ではなく稽古の命令形に近い力を帯びます。火水の息に合気せよ、と直接命じずに、火水に合気した働きだけが神業として生まれる、と配置する。そこに奥義の言い方があり、道歌の発話内行為が立ち上がります。

発話媒介行為（perlocutionary）としては、読む息がそのまま稽古の息へ移り、技の発生点が「対抗」から「むすび」へずれる。第一句・第二句と第四句の襞は、武産と営を重ね、第三句と第五句の襞は、合気する動作と神業の成就を重ねる。切れは分断ではなく、火水の二相を一息に抱く間であり、掛詞は意味の遊戯で終わらず、身体の拍を変える装置となる。ゆえに本首は、武産の説明句であると同時に、息を調え、場を結び、技を生む発話そのものです。

コーダ

ここまでたどってきた火水・息・合気・岐美・神業の連なりは、最後には一つの素朴な事実へ戻っていきます。武産とは、無数の技を所有することではない。技がそのつど生まれうるように、身体と心と場を、つねに初発のところへ澄ませておくことです。火が水を圧し切らず、水が火を消し切らず、双方が一息のうちに互いの働きを全うするとき、合気は調和についての観念ではなく、生成そのものの出来事となります。

ゆえに「御親の火水」は、遠い神代にのみ属する象徴ではありません。それは吸う息と吐く息、進む足と退く足、発する力と受け容れる力のあいだを、いまも通い続ける拍です。稽古者はその拍を支配するのではなく、聞き分け、身を合わせ、自らの作為が透き通るまで反復する。そうして初めて、技は「私がしたもの」という狭い所有から離れ、場そのものが要請した営みとして立ち現れます。

結句「岐美の神業」は、その意味で技の作者を消す言葉でもあります。しかし、それは無為や受動を勧めるのではない。むしろ、作者であろうとする執着が消えるところまで、声・息・身を鍛えよという厳しい要請です。稽古を重ねるとは、技を足していくこと以上に、技の出生を妨げる余分な力を一つずつ退けていくことなのでしょう。澄ますこと、ゆずること、守ること、開くこと、そして生むこと――直前の道歌から続くこの運びは、ここで一息の円環となります。

こうして本首は、読まれて終わる歌ではなくなります。声に載せられた火水は呼吸へ移り、呼吸は間合いを変え、間合いは相手との関係を変え、その関係の変化がまだ名のない技を生む。発話は身体へ渡され、身体は場へ渡され、場は再び歌の意味を作り替える。その循環のなかでのみ、「武産」は名詞から働きへ、教えから実践へ、神話から今日の一歩へと移されていきます。

ならば次の一息において、私たちは何を制するのではなく、何を生ませようとしているのでしょうか。

English Translation

Commentary

This poem 142, “Takemusu wa / mioya no iki ni / aiki shite / sono itonami wa / kimi no kamiwaza” (武産は／御親の火水に／合気して／その営は／岐美の神業), places the root of takemusu (武産)—“the martial that continues to give birth”—in aligning oneself with the iki (火水＝いき／息), the breath of the mioya (御親), the divine parent-source. Here, the ateji (当て字) by which fire-water, hi-mizu (火水), is read as iki (いき), “breath,” is a deliberate design: fire as activation and ascent, water as calming and descent; their opposition gathered into a single breath. The phrase aiki shite (合気して) names the practical method of attuning oneself to the rhythm of that fire-water. The closing phrase Kimi (岐美) points to Izanagi and Izanami, the creator deities who are “two and yet one,” and gathers the poem into the claim that their itonami (営), their world-generating activity, is the true nature of takemusu itself. In other words, this is a short poem in which the unification of breath, iki (息), directly sets creation—musubi—into motion.

Seen through Morihei Ueshiba’s Six Primers, the arrangement tightens in this way. The First Primer principle, “Bu as Cosmic Principle,” Bu = Uchū Genri (武＝宇宙原理): takemusu is the activation of cosmic musubi by aligning with the breath of the mioya (御親). The Second Primer principle, “Aiki with Others,” Hito to no Aiki (人との合気): Kimi (岐美), as the marriage of two opposing phases, joins and gives life to relative forces—fire and water, attack and reception. The Third Primer principle, “Heart-mind and Spirit Inseperable,” Shin-kon Ichinyo (心魂一如): voice, breath, and body are gathered into one rhythm, the core that drives the modulation of fire-water through the body. The Fourth Primer principle, “Harmonizing Beautification,” Wagō Bika (和合美化): technique as kamiwaza (神業), divine work, guides the field not toward destruction but toward birth. The Fifth Primer principle, “Body as Dōjō, Heart-mind as Practitioner,” Tai = Dōjō, Kokoro = Shugyōsha / shugyōsha-gokoro / manabite (体＝道場、心＝修業者／修行者心／学び手): through breath practice, misogi (禊), and ma-ai (間合い), one repeatedly tempers fire and water into a single breath. The Sixth Primer principle, “following the source of supreme love,” Shiai no Minamoto ni Shitagau (「至愛」の源に順う): the telos of intimate, parental love, continuous with the mioya (御親), is set as the destination of technique. Read in this way, the poem presents an “operating diagram” that directly links breath as fire-water to aiki as musubi.

The thread from the immediately preceding three poems also runs straight through it. Poem 139 establishes the discipline of no-opening through the phrase “the perfectly clarified divine heart has not even the slightest gap,” sumikirishi mikokoro wa suki totemo nashi (澄み切りし御心は隙とてもなし). Poem 140 vows a protection enacted on the ground: yielding and guiding, yet allowing no harm to pass. Poem 141 declares an outward-facing aspiration to open the world as “the light of all people,” morobito no hikari (諸人の光). Into that sequence, poem 142 places the gapless heart-mind of poem 139, the guarding step of poem 140, and the luminous intention of poem 141 back upon the rhythm of “the breath of the mioya,” mioya no iki (御親のいき), and carries them into the stage where technique continues to be born as takemusu (武産), the union of two phases as Kimi (岐美). In brief: clarify the heart, poem 139; yield and protect, poem 140; open through light, poem 141; give birth through the fire-water of breath, poem 142. This cycle is the training guideline of this page.

A one-line colloquial summary

“Takemusu (武産) means doing aiki with the fire-and-water breath of the divine parent-source, and its working is the divine art of Kimi (岐美)—Izanagi and Izanami.”

The folds of poetics: Fixed form, associated words, and noun-ending

This poem first stands with exceptional straightforwardness in the fixed form of five-seven-five-seven-seven. Takemusu wa (武産は) has five sounds; mioya no iki ni (御親の火水に) has seven; aiki shite (合気して) has five; sono itonami wa (その営は) has seven; Kimi no kamiwaza (岐美の神業) has seven. The divisions of the words and the divisions of the poetic phrases nearly coincide, so the breath of recitation does not become disturbed. The upper phrase, kami-no-ku (上の句), “Takemusu wa / mioya no iki ni / aiki shite” (武産は／御親の火水に／合気して), sets forth the condition from which takemusu arises. The lower phrase, shimo-no-ku (下の句), “sono itonami wa / Kimi no kamiwaza” (その営は／岐美の神業), reveals the true nature of that working. In other words, the upper phrase is responsible for “what it aligns with,” while the lower phrase is responsible for “what it manifests as.” The third phrase, aiki shite (合気して), is the hinge that passes from upper to lower; it is the modulation point where the breath of fire-water turns into the activity of divine work.

The movement of the particles, though brief, also creates a strong skeleton. The wa (は) of the opening phrase raises takemusu (武産) as the great theme, while the sono itonami wa (その営は) of the fourth phrase receives and re-illuminates it. There is no kakarimusubi (係結び) here in the strict sense, but the two instances of wa (は) answer one another, so that the theme of the first phrase is lit again in the fourth. The two instances of no (の) in mioya no (御親の) and Kimi no (岐美の) also matter: in the upper phrase, no indicates origin; in the lower phrase, it indicates belonging. Takemusu arises from the fire-water of the mioya (御親), and its activity belongs to Kimi (岐美). These two lines of possession and provenance join the whole poem into a mythic genealogy.

The closing phrase, Kimi no kamiwaza (岐美の神業), clearly functions as taigendome (体言止め), a noun-ending. By not concluding with nari (なり) or de aru (である), by not saying “it is,” the poem refuses to close itself as explanation. It leaves the noun phrase standing, and with it the resonance of the divine name and divine work. Moreover, waza (業) can mean not only “work” or “deed,” but also “technique” in the martial sense. Thus kamiwaza (神業) is both “the work of the kami” and “the technique of the kami.” At this point, the poem does not end as a doctrinal proposition. It ends by leaving an after-resonance in the practitioner’s body. This is the poem’s yoin (余韻).

The web of associated words, engo (縁語), is also dense. The first cluster is hi-mizu (火水), ki (気), aiki (合気), and iki (息): fire-water, vital energy, aiki, and breath. By reading hi-mizu (火水) as iki (いき), the iki (いき) of the second phrase is drawn into the aiki (あいき) of the third. As sound, the movement is from iki to aiki—breath joins and becomes aiki. The second cluster is mioya (御親), musu (産), itonami (営), and Kimi (岐美): parent-source, birth, activity, and the generative deities. There is parenthood, there is giving birth, there is ongoing activity, and there is the generation performed by the two kami of Kimi. The musu (産) of takemusu (武産) does not mean merely the arising of technique; it extends into the mythic word-field of country-birth and kami-birth. The third cluster is bu (武), waza (業), and kamiwaza (神業). The working of martiality is here figured not as an act of destruction, but as the generative work of the divine.

As a kakekotoba (掛詞), the central pivot is already hi-mizu = iki (火水＝いき), but the closing Kimi (岐美) also leaves a margin for the ear. In writing, the characters are fixed as Kimi (岐美), pointing to Izanagi and Izanami. In sound, however, they also faintly echo the archaic kimi (君). Kimi (君) can mean one’s lord, a noble person, or a beloved other; therefore the closing phrase, while pointing to mythic creator kami, also leaves behind the atmosphere of “the noble two” or “the intimate two.” This may not be a strong pivot-word in the strictest sense, but it is a very dōka-like device of the ear: the written form fixes the meaning, while the sound widens the emotional resonance.

Mitate (見立て), poetic re-seeing or figuration, is also central to this poem. The working of aiki that takes place in the training hall is seen as the kamiwaza (神業) of the two deities, Kimi (岐美). By re-seeing human technique as the generative action of the Age of the Kami, takemusu ceases to be merely a martial term and becomes a small reenactment of the generation of heaven and earth. Attack and reception, fire and water, yang and yin, activation and calming—these two phases do not collide and end in conflict. They are joined into one breath and give birth to a new technique. In that instant, the training space itself is transferred into a mythic field of musubi (産霊).

It should also be noted that orthodox utamakura (歌枕) or makurakotoba (枕詞) do not come to the foreground here. Rather than a place-name functioning as utamakura, the divine name Kimi (岐美) itself opens a mythic place. And rather than a fixed pillow-word, the phrase mioya no iki ni (御親の火水に) works like a small jokotoba (序詞), a preface-phrase leading toward aiki (合気). It is not decorative prelude, but an introductory phrase that prepares both sound and meaning. Mioya no hi-mizu (御親の火水)—iki (いき)—aiki (合気). By placing this sequence on the tongue, the reader’s breath has already entered the operation the poem teaches. Thus, through fixed form, particles, associated words, and noun-ending, this poem does more than “explain” takemusu (武産). The moment it is voiced aloud, it becomes a short poem that sets the aiki of fire-water into motion.

Speech Act Theory

Seen through Austin’s (1962) threefold framework, the Speech Act Theory reading of poem 142 begins with the locutionary act: the five-phrase verbal construction that enters the voice as “Takemusu wa / mioya no iki ni / aiki shite / sono itonami wa / Kimi no kamiwaza” (武産は／御親の火水に／合気して／その営は／岐美の神業). Its illocutionary act is a declaration that defines takemusu (武産) as an activity that does aiki with the hi-mizu (火水), that is, the iki (息), of the mioya (御親), and then shifts its phase into the kamiwaza (神業) of Kimi (岐美). Its perlocutionary act is the effect it produces in the field of recitation, training, and breath: it causes technique to be felt not as manipulative artifice, but as the musubi (むすび) of fire-water. The first and second phrases, Takemusu wa / mioya no iki ni (武産は／御親の火水に), are folded back into the fourth phrase, sono itonami wa (その営は), so that the theme set forth in the upper phrase is renamed in the lower phrase as a working. The third phrase, aiki shite (合気して), is both cut and bridge, the pivot that leads into the closing phrase Kimi no kamiwaza (岐美の神業). The pivoting reading hi-mizu = iki (火水＝いき) folds fire and water, breath and vital force, activation and calming into a single sound, turning the sound of the utterance itself into a method of aiki.

Once this fold is grasped, the boundary between upper phrase and lower phrase is no mere three-phrase break. It becomes the modulation point of the illocutionary act. The first half shows “from what it is born”; the second half reveals “as what it works.” Takemusu arises from the iki (いき) of the mioya (御親), and its activity manifests as the kamu-waza (神業) of Kimi (岐美). This two-step rephrasing carries a force closer to a training imperative than to explanation. It does not directly command, “Do aiki with the breath of fire-water.” Rather, it arranges the matter so that only the working that has done aiki with fire-water is born as divine work. There lies the manner of speaking an inner teaching; there, the illocutionary act of the dōka (道歌) rises.

As a perlocutionary act, the breath of reading passes directly into the breath of practice, and the point from which technique arises shifts from “opposition” to musubi (むすび). The fold between the first, second, and fourth phrases layers takemusu (武産) over itonami (営), generative martiality over ongoing activity. The fold between the third and fifth phrases layers the act of doing aiki (合気) over the accomplishment of kamiwaza (神業). The cut is not division; it is the interval that holds the two phases of fire-water in a single breath. The pivot-word does not end as a play of meaning; it becomes a device that changes the body’s rhythm. Therefore this poem is at once an explanatory verse on takemusu and an utterance that itself regulates breath, joins the field, and gives birth to technique.

Coda

The sequence traced here—fire-water, breath, aiki, Kimi, and divine work—returns at last to a simple fact. Takemusu is not the possession of an inexhaustible inventory of techniques. It is the keeping of body, heart-mind, and field sufficiently clear that technique may be born anew at each encounter. When fire does not overpower water, when water does not extinguish fire, and when each fulfills its nature within a single breath, aiki ceases to be an idea about harmony. It becomes an event of generation.

For this reason, the “fire-water of the mioya,” mioya no iki (御親の火水), is not merely a symbol belonging to a remote Age of the Kami. It is the rhythm still passing between inhalation and exhalation, advance and withdrawal, projection and reception. The practitioner does not command this rhythm from outside. One listens for it, enters it, and repeats the work until personal contrivance becomes transparent. Only then does technique loosen from the narrow claim that “I performed it” and appear instead as the activity required by the field itself.

The closing phrase Kimi no kamu-waza (岐美の神業) therefore also removes the presumed author of the technique. Yet this is not an invitation to passivity. It is a severe demand to discipline voice, breath, and body until the attachment to authorship no longer obstructs what is trying to arise. Training, in this sense, is not only the addition of skill. It is the gradual removal of the unnecessary force that prevents skill from being born. To clarify, to yield, to protect, to open, and finally to give birth—the movement carried through the preceding poems is gathered here into the circle of one breath.

The poem consequently does not complete itself when it has been read. Fire-water passes from the spoken phrase into respiration; respiration alters ma-ai; ma-ai alters the relation between bodies; and that altered relation gives rise to a technique that did not exist beforehand. Utterance is entrusted to the body, the body to the field, and the field returns a newly embodied meaning to the poem. Within this circulation, takemusu moves from noun to activity, from doctrine to practice, and from primordial myth into the next unrepeatable step.

At the threshold of that next breath, the measure of the art is no longer what it can defeat, but what it can allow to be born.

References

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Bowring, R. (2008). The religious traditions of Japan, 500–1600. Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 2005)

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Kubozono, H. (Ed.). (2015). Handbook of Japanese phonetics and phonology. De Gruyter Mouton.

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Philippi, D. L. (Trans.). (1990). Norito: A translation of the ancient Japanese ritual prayers. Princeton University Press.

Pranin, S. (2011, August 27). Takemusu Aiki 武産合気. Aikido Journal. https://aikidojournal.com/2011/08/27/takemusu-aiki/

Sasaki Aikido Kenkyūjo. (n.d.). 第870回 フトマニ古事記の水火、息、気、神、魂 (on 火水＝いき and kami). Retrieved October 10, 2025, from https://sasaki-aiki.com/article/?c=1&v=870

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Appendix I: Change Modification Log

09 JUL 26 - Added additional poetics analysis; translated commentary to English; added codas to Japanese and English commentaries.
15 JUN 26 - Updated formatting.
02 JUN 26 - Added Speech Act Analysis; updated citation style.
12 APR 26 - Updated references; corrected Nishioka (n.d.) and Kokugakuin University (n.d.).
21 DEC 25 - Applied Phase V styling to waka.
07 DEC 25 - Cleaned up commentary (i.e., English quotes to Japanese quotes); back propagated Primer references to Japanese.
30 NOV 25 - Phase IV completion; replaced 御親 (august parent[s]) with mioya to preserve translation, preserve signing to unique concept(s), and help with reducing rough syllable counts to get closer to cadence of mora timing, though mora counts are different than syllable counts; commentary added.
23 NOV 25 - Prepped for Phase IV.
20 NOV 25 - Removed “（いき）” from quote as it is used for prompting pronunciation after “火水”.
19 OCT 25 - Phase III completed.
14 APR 20 - Initial notes transferred.